lefteris_kaliamboswikiaorg-20200214-history
PROTON-PROTON FORCE
By Prof. L. Kaliambos (Natural Philosopher in New Energy) January 5, 2016 After my published paper "Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism" (2003), based on the discovered quarks by Gell-Mann and Zweig, today it is well known that the new structure of protons and neutrons is given by proton = + 5d + 4u = 288 quarks = mass of 1836.15 electrons neutron = + 4u + 8d = 288 quarks = mass of 1838,68 electrons Note that my paper of 2003 was also presented at a nuclear conference held at NCSR "Demokritos" (2002). In this photo I present the differential equations of the charge distributions in nucleons, which led to my discovery of the nuclear force and structure. Surprisingly when I showed that considerable charge distributions in nucleons due to the 9 extra charged quarks in proton and to 12 extra charged quarks in neutron interact electromagnetically with strong forces of short range for the correct nuclear structure some physicists influenced by the invalid relativity (EXPERIMENTS REJECT RELATIVITY) abandoned the conference hall, although the correct nuclear structure is based on the well-established laws of Coulomb and Ampere. Especially I showed that in the simple structure of He-4 the proton-neutron attraction overcomes the repulsion of proton-proton interaction and the neutron-neutron repulsion. Historically in the development of nuclear physics of the twentieth century it was shown that the nucleus of the hydrogen is composed by a particle called proton (symbol p ). The word proton (Greek "first") was given to the hydrogen nucleus by Rutherford in 1920. At that time it was believed that proton has a charge +1e = 1.6/1019 C . It has a mass Mp = 1.6726/1027 Kg = 938.272 MeV/c2 and an intrinsic spin I = ½ . Its intrinsic magnetic moment is gp = 2.793 (Sanders 1957). On the other hand neutron ( n ) was discovered by Chadwick in 1932 . He gave the name “neutron” because it was believed that it has no charge. Its mass Mn = 1.6749/1027 Kg = 939.5654 MeV/c2, is slightly greater than that of the proton; its spin is also ½. Under this condition for the proton-neutron interaction in 1932 Heisenberg proposed a fallacious theory called Theory of the Exchange Force and later Yukawa (1935) based on the Heisenberg wrong theory proposed a similar wrong theory called Meson Theory. Surprisingly later though it was believed that the neutron has no charge it was discovered that the neutron does have a negative magnetic moment gn = -1.913 (Cohen 1956). It may seem strange that an uncharged object has a magnetic moment. We should bear in mind, however, that even in fundamental physics the absence of charge means only that the integral of the charge distribution vanishes. For example, a spinning oblate spheroid or a spinning disk that has a negative charge on its circular periphery and an equal positive charge at its center will provide a negative magnetic moment with zero net charge. Under this condition later (1964) Gell-Mann in his quark theory proposed that the proton consists of two positive quarks (2u = +4e/3 ) and one negative quark (1d = -1e/3 ) which give the total charge (+4e/3 -1e/3) = +1e . Whereas the neutron should consist of two negative quarks ( 2d = -2e/3 ) and one positive quark 1u = +2e/3) giving zero net charge. However the experiments showed that the three hypothetical proton quarks of the scheme (uud) contribute only about 1% of the proton’s mass. Especially I discovered that the mass of 1u = 2.40016 MeV/c2 and the mass of 1d = 3.69349 MeV/c2. (See my NEW STRUCTURE OF PROTONS AND NEUTRONS) . So we get uud = 4.80032 + 3.69349 = 8.49381 MeV/c2. That is 8.49381/938.272 = 0.0090526 = 1 %. Similarly in the case of neutron we get ddu = 7.38698 + 2.40016 = 9.78714. That is 9.78714/ 939.5654 = 0.0104 = 1% Historically, after the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron (1932) Heisenberg in the same year tried to explain the nuclear force by introducing the wrong hypothesis of exchanging forces without any success. In the same way Yukawa (1935) introduced the theory of mesons, because he believed that the proton and the neutron are attracted by an unknown strong force of short range mediated by mesons like the electromagnetic forces of long range, which were thought to be mediated by the wrong Maxwell’s fields. On the other hand in 1964 Gell-Mann after a taxonomy of particles suggested that both protons (p) and neutrons (n) consist of only three (uud) quarks and (dud) quarks respectively having fractional charges as u = +2e/3 and d = -e/3. That is, uud = +e and dud = 0. Of course such structures imply small charge distributions as p = (+Q = +4e/3, and –q = -e/3) . Whereas n = (+Q = +2e/3, and -Q = -2e/3) which cannot lead to the nuclear binding and structure. Actually, if we apply the fundamental charge-charge interaction of the well-established laws of electromagnetism on such small charge distributions, it would be impossible for us to get the simplest p-n structure of deuterium (D). Meanwhile in 1933, Stern measured the magnetic moment of the proton to be 2.79 μN and in 1940 F. Bloch measured the neutron magnetic moment to be -1.91 μN. Such results deviate significantly from the predictions of Dirac’s theory and invalidate both Yukawa’s model and the simple quark model of Gell-Mann because a careful analysis of them provides considerable charge distributions due to a large number of quarks able to give the nuclear binding and structure by applying the well-established and fundamental laws of charge-charge interactions involving forces acting at a distance. Ever since the simple quark model was proposed extensive searches have been made for evidence of the existence of quarks as free particles. As yet there has been no decisive evidence for the existence of free quarks. Under this condition the universe could be started off with a primordial gravity of long range on neutral quark triads (dud) exerting electric forces of short range. On the other hand there have been many good agreements between the deductions of the quark model and various experimental data to strongly support the existence of quarks. Whereas the experiments showed that the mass of the proposed uud and dud quarks in each nucleon is only 1% of the total mass of the nucleon. However despite the enormous success that the up (u) and down quark (d) have fractional charges of the well-established electromagnetic laws, Gell-Mann in 1973 like the wrong theories of Heisenberg (1932) Fermi (1934) Yukawa (1935), and Glashow (1968) abandoned the fundamental charges of basic laws and developed the invalid Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD) by introducing incorrectly massless gluons as force carriers with strange color forces under the invalid mass-energy conservation of the invalid special relativity. Note that the hypothetical energy of gluons cannot give the mass of nucleons, since energy does not turn to mass. Also massless particles cannot exist, because energy without mass cannot exist. (See my "Einstein's wrong theories" ). Nevertheless in “proton-WIKIPEDIA” one can see the confusing description of the proton based on two different models like the simple quark hypothesis with the uud quarks mediated by gluons and the valence quark model with the uud quarks characterized as valence quarks in a sea of virtual quark-antiquark pairs generated by the gluons. Also in “Gluon-WIKIPEDIA” one reads wrong experimental observations of gluons. In fact, individual events in the TASSO experiments had nothing to do with the establishment of a gluon signal. in Google Letters (page 2) CERN Courier. Unfortunately, under the influence of the wrong rest mass or rest energy of the invalid relativity nuclear physicists believed that at very short distances the neutron-neutron, proton-neutron, and proton-proton interactions give the same nuclear attractions. However there were some questions. If the n-n, p-n, and p-p nuclear attractions are the same, why do we not find stable di-and trineutrons or di-and triprotons? Under such false nuclear ideas I published my paper of 2003 in which I noticed that theoretical explanations of atomic molecular and solid-state phenomena may present formidable mathematical difficulties , but it is at least true that the interactions between the constituent particles are well understood . For these systems the forces the particles exert on each other are entirely of electromagnetic origin, while in the description of nuclear properties after the abandonment of fundamental laws of electromagnetism one should rely on various wrong models and no single model was completely adequate to reproduce all experimental data under the natural laws of electromagnetism. So, in that paper I describe the charge distributions of protons and neutrons respectively by a careful analysis of the magnetic moments of nucleons and the deep inelastic scattering experiments. For example for the proton (p) the magnetic moment μ is given by μ/S = 2.793 e/M where (S) is the spin of proton, (+e) the net elementary positive charge of proton and (M) the mass of proton. Here we see that the above experimental relation cannot be consistent with the simple quark model of Gell-Mann even in case in which the charge +Q = +4e/3 is along the periphery and the charge -q = -e/3 is at the center (deep inelastic scattering experiment). Clearly applying the electromagnetic laws for μ, and the laws of a rotating oblate spheroid (like the proton) we may write for μ and for the spin S (angular momentum) respectively as μ = iπR2 = QνπR2 and S = t MωR2 = tM2πνR2 where t is a factor between a rotating sphere and a disc. That is 0.4 < t < 0.5 It is well known that a spinning sphere of radius R is characterized by S = (0.4)MωR2 while a spinning disc of the same radius R is characterized by S = (0.5)MωR2 So in the case of the proton (oblate spheroid) we may write μ /S = Q/2t = 2.793 e. That is for t = 0.47742 (oblate spheroid) we get for the proton a charge along the periphery as +Q =+8e/3 = 4u and in the center we get -q = -5e/3 = 5d. In the same way for the neutron we get -Q = -8e/3 = 8d along the periphery, and +Q = +8e/3 = 4u in the center. Surprisingly applications of electromagnetic laws on such experimental charge distributions which give for proton extra (4u,5d) charged quarks and for the neutron extra (8d,4u) charged quarks lead exactly to the simplest nuclear binding (-2.2246 MeV) of the deuterium. Moreover such extra charged quarks led to the discovery of 288 quarks in nucleons. As a result the proton has 93 (dud) neutral quark triads. Among them there are 4u charged quarks distributed along the periphery and 5d charged quarks limited at the center. Whereas the neutron has 92 (dud) neutral quark triads and among them are distributed 8d charged quarks along the periphery and 4u charged quarks limited in the center. So the masses in terms of MeV/c2 of such structures of protons and neutrons given by PROTON = + 4u + 5d = 938.272 MeV/c2 NEUTRON = + 8d + 4u = 939.5654 MeV/c2 Such structures are also able to reveal the masses of up and down quarks. Indeed after a careful analysis of these two equations and solving for the masses of the two quarks up and down we found the masses of down (Md) and of up quark (Mu) as Md = 3.69349 MeV/c2 and Mu = 2.40016 MeV/c2 which give not only the masses Mn = 939.5654 MeV/c2 and Mp = 938.272 MeV/c2 of neutron and proton respectively but also the difference Mn - Mp = 1.293 MeV/c2 which is exactly equal to Md - Mu. However in "Down quark - WIKIPEDIA" and in "Up quark-WIKIPEDIA" one can see wrong values of Md and Mu because the difference Md - Mu is greater than the correct value Mn - Mp = 1.293 MeV/c2. Under this condition of charge distributions in nucleons in my paper “Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism (see it in “User: Kaliambos”) I found that the simple interactions of identical particles like the proton-proton, neutron-neutron and electron-electron interactions operate in radial direction (like the two spinning cogs) with opposite spin (S=0) to give always an attractive magnetic force (Fm), while the electric force (Fe) is always a repulsive force. In other words the net electromagnetic force (Fem) is given by Fem = Fe - Fm . In the case of p-p and n-n interactions at very short distances ( near the fermi distance (fm) the electric repulsion is always stronger than the magnetic attraction because the peripheral velocity of spinning protons and neutrons is smaller than the speed of light c. (See my FASTER THAN LIGHT). Thus the net electromagnetic force Fem is always a repulsive force of short range, while at large distances (r>> 1fm) the n-n interaction gives zero force, while the p-p interaction is the well known p-p interaction due to the simple charges . This is a repulsive electric force because the magnetic force of short range at large distances disappears. In other words the two protons at large distances (r >> 1fm) behave like point charges and the repulsive electric force is given by the simple Coulomb law as Fe = Ke2/r2 Nevertheless for two electrons of opposite spin at a distance r < 578.8 fm, because of the antiparallel spin along the radial direction the interaction of the electron charges gives a magnetic attraction Fm stronger than the electric repulsion Fe due to the peripheral velocity of spinning electrons which is faster than the speed o light. That is the attractive Fem is given by Fem = Fe - Fm . Therefore after a detailed analysis in my research the integration for calculating the mutual Fem led to the following relation: Fem = Fe - Fm = Ke2/r2 - (Ke2/r4)(9h2/16π2m2c2) Of course for Fe = Fm one gets the equilibrium separation ro = 3h/4πmc = 578.8/1015 m. That is, for an interelectron separation r < 578.8/1015 m the two electrons of opposite spin exert an attractive electromagnetic force, because the attractive Fm ofshort range is stronger than the repulsive Fe . However the proton-proton system at very short distances never gives such an attractive electromagnetic force Fem because the peripheral velocity of spinning protons is always smaller than the speed of light. In this case when the spin of p-p repulsion is antiparallel along the radial direction the attractive magnetic force Fm reduces the electric repulsion. For example in the diagram of He4 of the structure of Helium isotopes' ' n2(-1/2)..p2 (- 1/2) ''' '''p1(+1/2)..n1(+1/2) '' '''' '' we see that the protons p1(+1/2) and p2(-1/2) have antiparallel spin in which the magnetic attraction reduces the electric repulsion. Therefore in my paper “Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism” I showed that the repulsive energy of such a p-p system in He-4 is equal to 0.867 MeV. Whereas in the structure of the Be-8 isotope since the protons of the two squares have parallel spin the repulsive Fem of the p-p systems is very strong. That is Fem = Fe + Fm which leads to the decay. Note that the repulsive energy of two protons treated as two point charges of (+e) give a theoretical repulsive energy Ke/r = 1.44 MeV per one fermi. Category:Fundamental physics concepts